Literature review on antimony concentrations in foodstuffs and consumer risk assessment

This study aimed to produce a comprehensive review of published data and Swiss enforcement laboratory analyses on antimony (Sb) concentrations in foodstuffs, including their sources, speciation, and potential health risks to consumers. Sb concentration data were compiled through an extensive survey of both scientific and grey literature. All data was critically evaluated, and only results supported by valid quality control procedures were retained and visualized. Food contamination with Sb may occur via environmental uptake (soil, irrigation water), processing, or leaching from Sb‐containing packaging (particularly PET). Total diet studies in multiple countries show generally low Sb levels in most foodstuffs, with higher exposures in infants due to their greater intake relative to body weight. Levels of Sb in most food categories are generally low with a few exceptions. Grains and grain products typically contain minimal Sb, while vegetables and legumes are usually low but sometimes present high outliers, particularly in leafy greens, dried onions and garlic, or mung beans. Fruits consistently show negligible levels, and beverages, including water and juices, are generally safe. Mushrooms can accumulate significant amounts of Sb and contribute substantially to the tolerable daily intake for frequent consumers. Sb concentrations in game meat are highly variable due to contamination from bullet fragments, which can pose a significant risk. Some dairy products, particularly whey, can approach tolerable intake levels for infants. Other categories such as meat, fish, eggs, herbs, and composite foods are mostly low risk, though occasionally high concentrations in spices and honey warrant attention. Using Swiss consumption data, cumulative Sb intake from all foods is estimated at 49 μg day‐1, representing 11.5 % of the World Health Organisation Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) of 6 μg Sb kg bodyweight‐1 day‐1 for average consumers and 153 μg day‐1 (36 % TDI) for high consumers. However, these are upper‐bound estimates assuming maximum reported concentrations. Risk is negligible for most foods, but mushrooms, game meat, and certain dairy products can reach levels of concern for specific consumer groups. Our report highlights several knowledge gaps such as analytical methods for Sb that lack standardization, and high detection limits which hinder accurate comparisons across studies. Speciation data are scarce, limiting the ability to accurately assess the risk based on the more toxic trivalent form of Sb. There is a need for targeted monitoring of high‐risk foods such as mushrooms, game meat, and whey, as well as investigation into the sources of occasional high outliers in vegetables and legumes. Understanding whether contamination arises from environmental exposure, processing, or packaging is essential, and ongoing surveillance of Sb migration from food contact materials could inform future regulatory measures. We conclude that dietary Sb exposure in the Swiss population is well below health‐based guidance values, however, specific foods and consumer groups may face elevated risks.