Effects of the internal temperature on vertical mixing and on cloud structures in ultra-hot Jupiters

Context. The vertical mixing in hot-Jupiter atmospheres plays a critical role in the formation and spacial distribution of cloud particles in their atmospheres. This affects the observed spectra of a planet through cloud opacity, which can be influenced by the degree of cold trapping of refractory species in the deep atmosphere.

Aims. We aim to isolate the effects of the internal temperature on the mixing efficiency in the atmospheres of ultra-hot Jupiters (UHJs) and the spacial distribution of cloud particles across the planet.

Methods. We combined a simplified tracer-based cloud model, a picket fence radiative-transfer scheme, and a mixing length theory to the Exo-FMS general circulation model. We ran the model for five different internal temperatures at typical UHJ atmosphere system parameters.

Results. Our results show the convective eddy diffusion coefficient remains low throughout the vast majority of the atmosphere, with mixing dominated by advective flows. However, some regions can show convective mixing in the upper atmosphere for colder interior temperatures. The vertical extent of the clouds is reduced as the internal temperature is increased. Additionally, a global cloud layer gets formed below the radiative-convective boundary (RCB) in the cooler cases.

Conclusions. Convection is generally strongly inhibited in UHJ atmospheres above the RCB due to their strong irradiation. Convective mixing plays a minor role compared to advective mixing in keeping cloud particles aloft in UHJs with warm interiors. Higher vertical turbulent heat fluxes and the advection of potential temperature inhibit convection in warmer interiors. Our results suggest that isolated upper atmosphere regions above cold interiors may exhibit strong convective mixing in isolated regions around Rossby gyres, allowing aerosols to be better retained in these areas.